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Work-hardening or Strain-hardening is caused by the accumulation of dislocations generated by plastic deformation. It's in general a mechanism occurring in metals. There is undesirable hardening like for example during machining or there is intentional work hardening like during cold working or cold forming. Below an example of stress-strain curves for a copper alloy before and after deformation (the grain size is about 0.1 mm), from the Learn Online Resource of Ansys Granta EduPack: https://www.ansys.com/products/materials/granta-edupack
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